AWS Big Data Blog

Ideas you will meet

Databases

Schemas, indexes, query plans and choosing a store.

What we already know about this

Our own lessons on these ideas. Read them here before you start, so it makes sense.

• Software Design Essentials · 11 minClean and hexagonal architectureKeep business rules independent of frameworks, databases and the web: the dependency rule, layers, and ports and adapters.Read hereClose

  The problem

  In many applications, business rules are tangled with framework code, SQL and HTTP details. Then:

  • You cannot test a rule without a database and a web server.
  • Changing a framework or database means rewriting business logic.
  • The code is organised around technology, not around what the system does.

  Several architectures (hexagonal, onion, clean) solve this with the same idea: put business rules at the centre and keep details at the edges.

  The dependency rule

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  Figure SDA-SDE-06-1 · Clean architecture: dependencies point inwards · © forcsguy.com

  Source code dependencies point inwards only. Entities know nothing about use cases; use cases know nothing about the web or the database. Outer layers depend on inner ones, never the reverse.

  Layer	Contains	Knows about
  Entities	Core business objects and rules that would exist whatever the technology	Nothing else
  Use cases	Application-specific actions ("place order", "cancel subscription") that coordinate entities	Entities and the ports they define
  Interface adapters	Controllers, presenters, repositories' implementations, mappers	Use cases
  Frameworks and drivers	The web framework, database, message queue, UI	Adapters

  Before: logic tangled in the controller

  100%

  After: business rules in the middle

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  What changed

  • Business rules can be tested without a web server or database
  • The database or framework can be replaced at the edge
  • There are more files and layers to maintain

  Ports and adapters (hexagonal)

  The application is the hexagon. It talks to the outside only through ports: interfaces it owns. Adapters translate between the outside world and the ports.

  • Driving (inbound) ports: how the world calls the application (PlaceOrder). Adapters: REST controller, CLI, message listener, test.
  • Driven (outbound) ports: what the application needs (OrderRepository, PaymentGateway, Clock). Adapters: SQL implementation, payment provider client, fake for tests.

  // Port owned by the application
  interface OrderRepository { save(order: Order): Promise<void>; byId(id: string): Promise<Order | null> }
  interface PaymentGateway { charge(cents: number, token: string): Promise<boolean> }
  
  // Use case: pure application logic
  class PlaceOrder {
    constructor(private orders: OrderRepository, private payments: PaymentGateway) {}
    async run(input: { items: Item[]; token: string }) {
      const order = Order.create(input.items);                   // entity enforces rules
      if (!(await this.payments.charge(order.totalCents, input.token))) throw new Error("Payment failed");
      await this.orders.save(order);
      return order.id;
    }
  }
  
  // Adapters live outside, implementing the ports
  class SqlOrderRepository implements OrderRepository { /* uses a database */ }
  class StripeGateway implements PaymentGateway { /* calls the provider */ }
  
  // Composition root wires everything together at start-up
  const placeOrder = new PlaceOrder(new SqlOrderRepository(db), new StripeGateway(key));
  

  This is the dependency inversion principle from SOLID applied to a whole system.

  Benefits

  • Testable: run use cases with in-memory fakes, fast and without infrastructure.
  • Replaceable details: change the database, queue or web framework by writing an adapter.
  • Focus on the domain: the central code reads like the business process.
  • Deferred decisions: you can postpone choosing a database.

  Costs and cautions

  • More structure: interfaces, mappers and wiring add code. For a small CRUD app it can be overkill.
  • Mapping between layers (domain objects, database rows, API shapes) is repetitive; do it deliberately and avoid leaking database entities into the API.
  • Do not create layers "because the diagram says so". Add a boundary where a real change or testing need exists.
  • It is about dependencies, not folder names: a good folder layout helps but does not guarantee the rule is followed. Enforce it with tests or lint rules.

  Related ideas

  • Domain-driven design supplies the language for the centre of the hexagon (next lesson).
  • Microservices are a deployment choice; each service can use this internal structure.
  • Composition root: one place, at start-up, where concrete classes are chosen and injected.

  Real-world reading

  Related reading

  • Cockroach Labs BlogCockroach Labs engineers · Cockroach LabsBlogs
  • Fivetran BlogFivetran engineers · FivetranBlogs
  • ClickHouse BlogClickHouse engineers · ClickHouseBlogs
  • InfluxData BlogInfluxData engineers · InfluxDataBlogs

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  • Elastic BlogElastic engineers · ElasticBlogs
  • AWS Database BlogAWS database teams · Amazon Web ServicesBlogs
  • How SQLite WorksSQLite team · SQLiteDocumentation
  • AWS Big Data BlogAmazon Web Services engineers · Amazon Web ServicesBlogs
  • Viget Engineering BlogViget engineers · VigetBlogs
  • Meituan Blog (Chinese)Meituan engineers · MeituanBlogs

  Open this lesson with its quiz and exercise

• Databases Deep Dive · 12 minReplication topologies and multi-region databasesSingle-leader, multi-leader and leaderless replication, how they handle conflicts and lag, and what changes across regions.Read hereClose

  Why replicate

  Replication keeps copies of data on several machines for three reasons: availability (survive a node failure), read scaling (serve reads from replicas) and latency (put data near users). The hard part is keeping copies consistent while writes continue. (Basics are in the replication and sharding lesson of the foundations course; this lesson compares the topologies.)

  Single-leader (primary and replicas)

  One node, the leader (primary or master), accepts writes and ships its changes to followers (replicas), which serve reads.

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  Figure SDA-DDV-04-1 · Single-leader replication · © forcsguy.com

  • Synchronous replication waits for a follower before acknowledging: safer, slower, and a stalled follower can block writes. Asynchronous is faster but a failover can lose the latest writes. A common compromise: one synchronous follower, others asynchronous.
  • Failover must detect failure, choose the most up-to-date replica, redirect clients and ensure the old leader does not come back believing it still leads (split brain).
  • Replication lag causes stale reads. Techniques: read-your-writes (route a user's reads to the leader shortly after they write), monotonic reads (keep a user on one replica), and checking replica position.

  Multi-leader

  Several nodes accept writes (often one per region) and replicate to each other. Benefits: local write latency and continued operation if a region is cut off. Cost: write conflicts.

  Conflict handling options:

  • Avoid them: route all writes for one record to one leader (for example by user or region).
  • Last write wins by timestamp: simple, but silently drops one of two concurrent updates and depends on clocks.
  • Merge values (union of sets, counters) using mergeable data types (CRDTs; see the collaborative editing lesson).
  • Custom resolution in application code, or ask the user.

  Multi-leader also appears in offline-capable apps (each device is a leader) and collaborative editing.

  Before: single leader

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  After: multi-leader across regions

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  What changed

  • Users in each region write to a nearby database
  • Concurrent edits to the same row need conflict handling
  • More moving parts to run and monitor

  Leaderless (Dynamo-style)

  Any replica accepts writes; clients write to several replicas and read from several, using quorums (W + R > N) to get fresh data (see the key-value store lesson). Background anti-entropy and read repair fix stale copies; versions or vector clocks detect conflicts. It favours availability and is typical of Cassandra and DynamoDB-style stores.

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  Figure SDA-DDV-04-2 · Choosing a replication model · © forcsguy.com

  Multi-region designs

  • Active-passive: one region serves writes; another is a warm standby. Simple; failover loses a little data (the replication lag) and takes minutes.
  • Active-active: several regions serve traffic. Requires either partitioning data by home region (each record has one home, cross-region reads are replicas) or true multi-leader conflict handling.
  • Global databases use consensus across regions (see the consensus lesson) for strong consistency at the cost of cross-region write latency; some offer tunable consistency per query.
  • Latency numbers matter: a cross-ocean round trip is around 100 ms or more, so synchronous cross-region replication adds that to every write.
  • Data residency laws may require keeping certain users' data in a region.

  Partitioning and replication together

  Real systems shard data into partitions and replicate each partition (a leader per partition spreads write load across nodes). Rebalancing, hot partitions and cross-partition transactions are the new problems (see sharding and the consistent-hashing lesson).

  Master/slave naming

  You will see "master/slave", "primary/replica" and "leader/follower" for the same single-leader idea; most current documentation prefers the last two.

  Checklist

  • What happens to writes if the leader or a region is lost, and how long?
  • How much data can we lose (RPO) and how long can we be down (RTO)?
  • How do we handle stale reads from replicas?
  • Who resolves conflicts, and how?
  • Have we practised failover?

  Real-world reading

  Related reading

  • Active-Active for Multi-Regional ResiliencyNetflix Engineering · NetflixCase Studies
  • Designing Data-Intensive ApplicationsMartin Kleppmann · O'ReillyBooks
  • Read Consistency with Database Replicas at ShopifyShopify engineers · ShopifyCase Studies
  • Uber Schemaless: A Scalable MySQL DatastoreUber Engineering · UberCase Studies

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  • Mitigating MySQL Replication Lag and Reducing Read Load at GithubGithub engineers · GithubCase Studies
  • Cassandra architecture overviewApache Cassandra · Apache Software FoundationDocumentation
  • How Discord Stores Trillions of MessagesBo Ingram · DiscordBlogs
  • Spanner: Google's Globally Distributed Database (paper)Corbett et al. · GooglePapers
  • Scaling Multitenant Architecture Across Multiple Data Centres at Shopify - Weingarten, Engineering Lead at ShopifyShopifyYouTube
  • MIT 6.824: Distributed SystemsRobert Morris · MITCourses

  Open this lesson with its quiz and exercise

• Databases Deep Dive · 13 minChoosing a database typeA practical map from workload to database: relational, document, key-value, wide-column, search, graph, time-series and vector stores.Read hereClose

  Start from the access pattern

  There is no best database; there is a best database for a workload. Ask:

  1. What are the main queries (by key, by range, by search, by relationship)?
  2. How much data and how fast does it grow? Read/write ratio?
  3. What consistency and transaction guarantees are needed?
  4. What latency is required, and where are users?
  5. What can your team operate?

  The families

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  Figure SDA-DDV-05-1 · Map from need to database family · © forcsguy.com

  Relational (PostgreSQL, MySQL)

  Tables, SQL, joins, constraints, ACID transactions. The default for most business data. PostgreSQL has rich features (JSON, full-text, extensions, many index types); MySQL is widely deployed and simple to operate. They scale vertically very far, and read replicas and sharding extend them. Choose when data is structured, relationships matter and correctness is critical.

  Document (MongoDB and similar)

  Stores JSON-like documents; flexible schema; related data can be embedded in one document so a single read gets everything. Good for content, catalogues and objects read whole. Watch for duplicated data, joins you must do in code, and weaker multi-document transaction habits.

  Key-value (Redis, Memcached; DynamoDB as a key-value/wide hybrid)

  Lookup by key at very low latency. Redis adds data structures (hashes, sorted sets, lists, bitmaps), persistence and clustering (see the Redis lesson). Ideal for caches, sessions, counters, rate limits, leaderboards. Not for ad-hoc queries.

  Wide-column and partitioned key stores (Cassandra, DynamoDB, HBase)

  Data is partitioned by a partition key across many nodes; you design tables around queries. Excellent write throughput, horizontal scale and availability. Cost: limited query flexibility, careful key design (hot partitions), eventual consistency by default. Good for event logs, messaging history, time-ordered user data.

  Search engines (Elasticsearch, OpenSearch, Solr)

  Build an inverted index (word to documents) for full-text search, relevance scoring, filters and facets. Usually a secondary copy of data from a primary database, kept in sync. Not a system of record: treat it as a derived index that can be rebuilt.

  Graph (Neo4j and others)

  Stores nodes and relationships and answers questions that follow connections: friends of friends, fraud rings, recommendations, dependency analysis. Where many-hop traversals would need expensive recursive joins in SQL, a graph database is natural.

  Time-series (InfluxDB, TimescaleDB, Prometheus)

  Optimised for append-heavy, timestamped data with time-range queries, downsampling and retention. Used for metrics, IoT and finance ticks (see the metrics monitoring lesson). Keep tag cardinality low.

  Vector databases (and vector indexes in other databases)

  Store embeddings (arrays of numbers representing meaning) and find the nearest neighbours, using approximate indexes (graph-based or clustering) for speed. Used for semantic search and retrieval for AI applications. Many general databases now offer vector indexes, which can be enough for moderate scale and avoids another system.

  A quick chooser

  Need	First choice
  Business data with relationships and transactions	Relational
  Flexible, self-contained records	Document
  Cache, session, counter, leaderboard	Redis
  Massive write volume, simple access by key	Wide-column / DynamoDB-style
  Full-text search and facets	Search engine
  Many-hop relationship queries	Graph
  Metrics and sensor data	Time-series
  Semantic similarity	Vector index
  Analytics on large history	Warehouse or lakehouse (see the big data course)

  Polyglot persistence and its price

  Many systems use several stores, each for what it does best: a relational database as the source of truth, a cache, a search index and a metrics store fed from it. The cost is keeping them in sync (change events, outbox pattern, rebuild jobs), more to operate and more failure modes. Add a store only when a measured need justifies it.

  SQL versus NoSQL, honestly

  "NoSQL" is a family of different designs, not one thing. Relational databases scale further than many assume; NoSQL stores often give up joins and some consistency for scale and flexibility. Decide on requirements, not fashion. If in doubt, start relational and specialise later.

  Questions before committing

  • Can we model our top ten queries easily?
  • What happens at 10 times the data? At a regional failure?
  • How do we back up, restore, migrate and monitor it?
  • Does the team know it, and is it supported well on our platform?

  Real-world reading

  Related reading

  • Redis UniversityRedis · Redis Ltd.Courses
  • RedisRedis · Redis Ltd.GitHub
  • Redis DocumentationRedis · Redis Ltd.Documentation
  • Build Your Own XCodeCrafters · GitHubGitHub

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  • Redis persistenceRedis · Redis Ltd.Documentation
  • Moving Food Feed from Redis to Cassandra at ZomatoZomato engineers · ZomatoCase Studies
  • Scale with Redis ClusterRedis · Redis Ltd.Documentation
  • Improving key expiration in Redis at TwitterTwitter engineers · TwitterCase Studies
  • Migrating MySQL from 5.6 to 8.0 at FacebookFacebook engineers · FacebookCase Studies
  • Decreasing RAM Usage by 40% Using jemalloc with Python & Celery at ZapierZapier engineers · ZapierCase Studies

  Open this lesson with its quiz and exercise